Silicon is a silicate material. Silicon: properties and medicinal uses
Silicon and its compounds, like carbon and its compounds, are widely used in various fields. Silicon is used to make microelectronic devices. Silica is used in the manufacture of glass and cement. The use of silicates is diverse (Table 15.8). All of these examples use sodium silicates. Finally, silicones are used to make synthetic rubbers, varnishes and materials for the manufacture of protective coatings. Now we will dwell in more detail on three of these applications.
Foggs put his theory ahead of social networks in conquering the world. Social media gadgets penetrate one of our deepest motivated wells. In response to social interactions and even their imitation, the human brain gives pleasure, generating and getting used to chemicals, and the hottest incentives around: you and your friends or followers constantly encourage each other to take advantage of the service. A scientist introduced me to my former student Noel Mosley, who now advises technology companies.
Table 15.8. Some uses of silicates
The revolution in microelectronics
In the past two to three decades, silicon has become extremely important as a semiconductor material used for the manufacture of microelectronic devices, called "microcircuits."
A semiconductor is a substance whose electrical resistance has an intermediate value between those that are characteristic of electrical insulators (dielectrics) and conductors (Table 15.9).
Their goal is to attract as many fans as possible, because that means success for them. Each new follower and commentary is an emotional reward. However, it turned out that life in collecting these awards did not like. During our conversations, the scientist’s mood was excited only after he thought about how his ideas could be used incorrectly in business.
Rat and Psychological Addiction
One of his students, Nir Eyal, wrote the book “Addiction: How to Grow Habits” for a technology-rich entrepreneur who gained great popularity. Skinner found out that every time she received the same reward, the rat slowly pressed the lever. To encourage the animal to do this more often, rewards had to be diversified. When the rodent did not know whether he would hit one ball, several tablets or not, he would repeat the action without stopping. In other words, the rabbit developed a psychological dependence.
Impurities are often intentionally introduced into semiconductors, doping them with controlled amounts of impurities. Doping, as it were, reduces the gap between the conduction band and the valence band of the semiconductor (see Section 2.1), and therefore, reduces its resistance. A semiconductor of type (negative type) is obtained by doping pure silicon or germanium with any element
This is called the principle of unsustainable rewards. Skinner's discoveries relate to the development of successful digital products. Therefore, continue to press this red circle, moving the screen to the left, moving the slider down. No one is telling you this. Users encourage themselves. Eyal highlights unconscious choices, raising some questions about behavioral modeling. If someone models our behavior, then who is the responsible fashion designer? He created the science of behavioral modeling, ”he told me. “But nothing can be said about his ethics.”
Table 15.9. Semiconductor properties of silicon
Fig. 15.9. Doped silicon, a — schematic representation of Al, Si atoms with their external electrons; b - semiconductor: each pair of electrons forms a covalent bond; c - impurity semiconductor of type: the presence in the crystal lattice of silicon of an impurity atom of an element of group V, for example phosphorus, introduces an excess electron into it, and this reduces the electrical resistance of silicon; g - p-type impurity semiconductor: the presence in the crystal lattice of silicon of an impurity atom of an element of group III, for example aluminum, leads to the appearance of an electron "hole" in the lattice.
Entrepreneurs want to make people delay and seek their goals through our psychological weaknesses. A lot of money was received, but such a project was completed. Harris hoped to interpret his mission, but he could not convince the publisher that this gadget would encourage consumers to take more time on their sites. He began to think that the possibilities of informing and learning on the Internet in principle are contrary to the commercial imperative to attract and hold the attention of consumers in any way: "Entrepreneurs want to make people delay and seek their goals thanks to our psychological weaknesses."
V groups, for example phosphorus. Since the phosphorus atom has five electrons in the outer shell, the presence of phosphorus atoms in the silicon lattice leads to the appearance of excess electrons and, consequently, to the appearance of an effective negative charge (Fig. 15.9).
A semiconductor of p-type (positive type) has an effective positive charge due to the presence in its crystal lattice of impurity atoms belonging to any element of group III, for example, aluminum. Each aluminum atom creates an electron hole in the silicon lattice, i.e., a positive charge.
Unconscious impulses turn into social obligations that require attention, and it sells for money. Harris decided to move to the academic field to study the ethics of the digital economy. I wanted to know what responsibility comes from the ability to influence billions of people's psychology? What does the Hippocratic oath sound like?
Message slides spread throughout the company like a virus, and even reach the board. Harris stay and do research at the company. He even created a new ethical modeling specialist and product philosopher. But what happens after it has spread to the global economy?
A semiconductor diode is obtained at the junction of two semiconductor electrodes, one of which belongs to the n-type, and the other to the p-type (Fig. 15.10). The electrons flowing through the p-type electrode stop at the junction (transition) between the two electrodes, which is called the junction. Electrons flowing in reverse
Harris's speech is quick and full of tension. One of his mantras says: "He who controls the assortment, he controls the elections." The knowledge that we watch, the friends with whom we communicate, the work that we know, the restaurants that we choose, even potential partners of love, are increasingly filtered along the way widespread apples, each of which has a number of offers. Due to the great influence of his program. As any restaurant owner, grout or vendor would say, bidding can influence the choice.
Offering a choice of one of three prices, the retailer knows that at least 70% of customers choose a secondary one. The more technological products determine our behavior, the less we control ourselves. Harris claims that his colleagues have an abnormal influence, albeit at random. Do they even have time to think about it?
Fig. 10/15. Semiconductor diode: excess electrons from the β-type semiconductor electrode flow through the β-junction to fill the “holes” in the β-type semiconductor electrode.
Fig. 11/15. Transistors, and - transistor -type; b - transistor type.
The more technological products determine our behavior, the less we control ourselves. Entrepreneurs argue that their ability to give people what they want is improving. But you look at the phone on average 150 times a day. Do we act consciously each time? Strengthening the ability of business people to make people choose what the business needs.
Anthropologist Natasha Dow Schull quotes the author of a website called “Anonymous Addicts on a Las Vegas Slot Machine” in the book “Predictable Dependence”: Slot machines are just skinny boxes for people! No wonder they did it. This machine was designed specifically for this. The gaming sector was one of the first to introduce behavioral modeling. Slot machines are developed using variable rewards. The player uses leverage, not knowing if anyone will win in general, so you always want to try again.
direction, they go through this transition, since they come from a lattice with excess electrons to a lattice with an electron deficit. The same flow of electric charge can be considered as the opposite directional movement of electron holes, or a positive charge, from an electrode of a type to an electrode of a type.
Silicon semiconductor diodes are used as AC rectifiers, which convert it to direct current. The controlled silicon rectifier consists of electrodes of the type and type, as well as the third electrode, which plays the role of a diode valve. Such a rectifier converts alternating current to direct only if a small voltage is applied to the diode valve.
The ability of a gaming machine to attract people is the engine of the Las Vegas economy. Over the past 20 years, roulette wheels and gaming tables have paved the way for a new generation of machines that are no longer mechanical devices and no levers. They are equipped with sophisticated computers designed in collaboration with programmers, mathematicians, screenwriters, and graphic designers.
The gaming house seeks to maximize the so-called device time. The environment in which the car stands is also designed to prevent people from playing. Players can order drinks and food without interrupting the screen. Lighting, interior, noise, even the smell of cars - everything is carefully planned. Not only the light intensity, but also the angle is assumed: studies show that the player is the fastest way to get tired when the light falls on his forehead.
A transistor is a three-electrode semiconductor device in which between the two semiconductor electrodes of type (or type) there is a thin layer of semiconductor type (or type) (Fig. 15.11). Such a device allows you to control the flow of electric current of high strength, applying a small voltage to it. A type transistor has hole conductivity, and a type transistor has electron conductivity.
The phone peaks on average 150 times a day. However, the time spent on the device depends on many rewards. Machines are programmed in such a way that a person is almost defeated: a happy sequence of characters appears above or below a happy line much more often than chance. Defeating a player is a potential achievement and encourages you to try again. Mathematicians make payout plans so people can play, even if they lose money. Mathematicians are constantly improving their models and trying new ones, formulating formulas for the cerebral cortex.
Before the start, all transistors were placed in an individual metal or plastic shell. Subsequently, they were replaced by integrated circuits. Currently, one tiny silicon element in a software handheld calculator can contain over 30,000 transistors connected in a single integrated circuit.
Glass
Silicate glass forms when the molten silicates solidify. Sodium glass consists of a mixture of calcium silicate and sodium silicate. Its manufacture was mentioned in the previous chapter. Sodium glass is used for the manufacture of window glass and various grades of flat glass.
Schull. “This zone works like a magnet,” says another. - She adds and doesn't release. Being disappointed and determined that a person can no longer play that day, he can encourage the “ambassador of success” by exchanging tickets for events or gambling coupons. The player does not know that his game data is processed by an algorithm that calculates how much he can lose and still feel satisfaction, and how close he is to the so-called pain point. A free dinner in a roast restaurant can turn into a pain in pleasure and refresh your motivation to play on.
Borosilicate glass contains approximately boron oxide as well as small amounts of sodium and aluminum oxides. Borosilicate glass withstands temperatures up to and is highly resistant to chemicals, such as alkalis. The most common type of borosilicate glass is pyrex. Borosilicate glass is used for the manufacture of kitchen utensils and laboratory glassware.
However, there were readers who, having received this information, saw opportunities. The author told me that she was contacted by an online educational company that wanted to apply the idea of “success ambassadors”. When does a student reach a pain point who cannot answer test questions and what is needed to avoid passing and overcoming difficulties? The point is to shut people down in the form of incentives and rewards. These days we will carry personal gaming machines in our pockets.
Schull accepted the invitation to read the report at the Eyal Conference: It was strange. No one in this room wanted to inflict addiction on anyone. After all, it's a hipster from San Francisco. But at the same time, their main goal is to attract people's attention to new technology companies.
Lead glass has a high refractive index and is used for the manufacture of crystal glass products. A typical lead glass contains about 8% oxide; good crystal glass contains more lead.
Glass fiber is obtained in various ways, for example by dripping molten glass onto a rotating disk of refractory material. Glass shatters from the disk, forming thin filaments. Fiberglass is used for the manufacture of heat-insulating panels in the automotive industry, as well as parts of instrument housings in the aircraft industry.
J. are good guys, but they are more addictive than helping people get rid of them. The sun always shines in Silicon Valley. Optimists working there believe that their products expand the capabilities of humanity. Eyal heartily wants to improve the world. Creating products for me is all about religious feelings. Their creators have the ability to improve people's lives, discover painful moments and help. He rejects the idea that habit formation is largely ambiguous. Habits can be good or bad, and technology can create healthy habits.
In order to color the glass, oxides of various d-metals are introduced into the glass during the manufacturing process. Cobalt gives the glass a blue or pink color depending on the amount of basic oxides present in the glass, such as. The brown or green color of inexpensive glass grades used to make wine and beer bottles is due to the iron compounds that are present in the sand used to make this glass.
If the product integrates you more and more successfully, then this is not a problem, but progress. The directors of the gambling companies polled by Schulle are also not angry. They believe that they simply offer customers more and better ways to get what they want. No one is convinced or deceived to say goodbye to his money. As one of the leaders said, accidentally repeating Fogg, "it is impossible to force a person to do what he does not want." But the attitude, as N. points out, is a machine room zone, and the gaming business is a source of profit.
Harris is like an entire digital economy. No matter what useful products are created, the whole system works in the interests of its authors. The gambling house is part of the lion's share. “There is a fundamental conflict between the needs of people and business,” he explains. But the condition, as far as possible, is to expand the amount of time, and the device seems to be the best way to achieve this - to distribute the rewards to the consumer on an unpredictable schedule.
Optical fibers are made of quartz glass. Quartz glass is obtained by melting quartz. Quartz glass has excellent optical transparency. However, the silica glass used to make the optical fiber must be extremely clean. The amount of impurities in it, such as iron and copper, should be reduced to such a level that it does not exceed one part by 10 °. For this reason, silica glass used for the manufacture of optical fiber is obtained directly by the reaction of oxygen with chloride carried out in the gas phase. Chloride can be obtained with extremely high purity, characterized as "electronic degree of purity".
It also means closing the door of the box. Things that are important to people are very important: you play on the same device, read the slap in the face of celebrities and find out that your daughter is sick. Therefore, it cannot be turned off or left at home. Some people are worried about artificial intelligence, says Harris. “They ask if we can take full advantage of our opportunities without violating the interests of the people.” But artificial intelligence already exists. We have already opened this arsenal of Pandora, which constantly opens up new ways to convince us to do this or that, moving from one trance to another.
The optical fiber has a core that serves to transmit light, and a cladding with a lower refractive index, which prevents light loss through the sides. A fiber having the thickness of a human hair is surrounded by a protective sheath of silicon or an organic polymer material.
Optical fibers are used to transmit television programs, telephone calls, computer output, and other devices. According to some predictions, optical fibers will gradually replace copper wire cables that are commonly used for this purpose.
Liquid glass is an aqueous solution of sodium silicate. It is obtained by fusing silica with some alkali, for example sodium hydroxide, or with sodium carbonate. Sodium silicate is a strong base. When it is acidified, a gel is formed. It is a polymeric acid, which is attributed to the following structure:
When this material is heated, its dehydration occurs and it forms silica gel. Silica gel has a very developed surface. It is used as a desiccant and also as an inert carrier for some finely divided catalysts.
Silicones
So-called organosilicon polymer compounds, the skeleton of which form alternating silicon and oxygen atoms bonded to each other. Alkyl or aryl groups are attached to silicon atoms (see Chapter 17). As an example, we give the following structure:
Silicones are oily, fatty, resinous or rubbery substances. They are obtained by hydrolysis of chlorosilanes, for example dimethylchlorosilane. Alkyl or aryl chlorosilanes are obtained using Grignard reagents (see Section 19.1) or by passing vapor of alkyl or aryl halides over silicon granules in the presence of a copper catalyst at a temperature of the order of 300 ° C:
Silicones are thermally stable and interact with most chemicals. They have good water-repellent properties and are used as moisture-proof materials. In addition, they are used as technical oils, lubricants and insulators, as well as oil varnishes, paints and varnishes.
Question:
Oleg, in an article about silicon water, apparently you wanted to write silicate material - silicon. Alexander
Answer:
Hello, Alexander! I apologize if a typo is made in the text of the article. Of course, in the article we are talking about silicates - salts of silicic acids. Silicates are formed by combining silicon dioxide and the oxide of another chemical element. More than a third of the minerals known today belong to the class of silicates and aluminosilicates (silicates in which part of the silicon atoms are replaced by aluminum atoms), which together account for up to 95% of the mass of the earth's crust.
The crystalline lattice of silicates consists of the so-called silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, which are a silicon atom connected to four oxygen atoms. Silicates have an ionic structure; therefore, they cannot be classified by the composition of the anionic part. According to the structure of the crystal lattice, silicates and aluminosilicates are divided into island (olivine, garnet), ring, (beryl, tourmaline, emerald) chain (enstatite, bronzite, ferrosilite), ribbon (hornblende), layered (kaolinite, serpentine and mica) common - wireframe (quartz, feldspar). The group of these minerals also includes carnelian, and jasper, rock crystal, agate, opal, amethyst and many other stones.
The basis of these minerals is silicon dioxide or silica, but the density, color, and some other properties are different. In addition to silica, silicon contains about 20 chemical elements, the main of which are Mg, Ca, P, Sr, Mn, Cu, Zn and others. Hence, there are so many names. But the most famous among the representatives of this family is undoubtedly silicon. Most of the earth's crust consists of inorganic compounds of silicon (28 vol.%). Silicon atoms form the basis of clay, sand and rocks. We can say that the entire inorganic world is associated with silicon. Under natural conditions, silicon minerals are found in calcite and chalk.
Thus, silicon is the second element after oxygen in terms of the volume of reserves in the earth's crust and makes up about a third of its total weight. Every 6 atom in the crust of the earth's shell is a silicon atom. In sea water, silicon contains even more than phosphorus, which is so necessary for life on Earth.
As for silicates, most of them are refractory, chemically passive materials, practically insoluble in water. At different temperatures, they can be in a solid, liquid (molten) or gaseous state, and can also form colloidal systems.
Silicate materials can have both natural and artificial origin. Human civilization began with the fact that primitive people learned to process natural silicates, including silicon and obsidian, and to make tools out of them for hunting and processing prey. And then sculpt and burn a primitive ceramic dish made of silicate clay.
Today, natural silicate materials are widely used in construction and industry - both as a raw material and as a final product.
Silicait serves as a raw material for the cement industry - basic in the production of modern building materials. Silicate clay - the main raw material for the manufacture of building ceramics - bricks and tiles.
Quartz sand also since ancient times used for the manufacture of glass and ceramics, as various additives and in pure form. Non-flammable hydrosilicate asbestos is widely used for the manufacture of heat-shielding products and coatings.
Sodium silicate is also known as liquid glass.also used in various fields of production and to improve the quality of construction and paintwork materials. Homogeneous solution of liquid sodium glass has astringent properties and, in combination with other substances, is capable of rapid hardening and the formation of strong silicate stones. The film formed during drying of soluble sodium silicate, has high insulating and protective properties, prevents corrosion, destruction and burning.
Respectfully,
Ph.D. O.V. Mosin